Aircraft Repair Manual

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Aircraft Repair Manual

695 pages

CHAPTER 1. WOOD STRUCTURE
CHAPTER 2. FABRIC COVERING
CHAPTER 3. FIBERGLASS AND PLASTICS
CHAPTER 4. METAL STRUCTURE, WELDING, AND BRAZING
CHAPTER 5. NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI)
CHAPTER 6. CORROSION, INSPECTION - PROTECTION
CHAPTER 7. AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, CONTROL CABLES, AND TURNBUCKLES
CHAPTER 8. ENGINES, FUEL, EXHAUST, AND PROPELLERS
CHAPTER 9. AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 10. WEIGHT AND BALANCE
CHAPTER 11. AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 12. AIRCRAFT AVIONICS SYSTEMS

CompleteTable of Contents
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CHAPTER 1. WOOD STRUCTURE

SECTION 1. MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 1-1. General.1-1 1-2. Woods .1-1 Figure 1-1. Relative Shrinkage of Wood Member Due to Drying.1-1 Table 1-1. Selection and Properties of Aircraft Wood .1-2 Figure 1-2. Tapering of Faceplate .1-3 1-3. Modified Wood Products.1-3 1-4. Adhesives .1-3 1-5. Bonding Precautions .1-5 1-6. Preparation of Wood Surfaces for Bonding.1-5 1-7. Applying the Adhesive.1-6 1-8. Assembly Time in Bonding .1-6 1-9. Bonding Temperature .1-6 1-10. Clamping Pressure .1-7 1-11. Method of Applying Pressure.1-7 1-12.1-17. -RESERVED.-.1-8

SECTION 2. HEALTH AND SAFETY 1-18. General.1-9 1-19. Sanding in Areas of Existing Bond Joints and Finishes .1-9 1-20. Handling of Adhesives and Finishes.1-9 1-21.1-26. -RESERVED.-.1-9
SECTION 3. INSPECTION 1-27. General.1-11 1-28. Types of Deterioration and Damage .1-11 1-29. Inspection Methods .1-11 Figure 1-3. Likely Areas to Incur Structural Damage.1-13

SECTION 4. REPAIRS 1-36. General.1-15 1-37. Replacement of Drain Holes and Skin Stiffeners.1-15 1-38. Control Surface Flutter Precautions .1-15 1-39. Scarf Joints .1-15 Figure 1-4. Consideration of Grain Direction When Making Scarf Joints .1-15 1-40. Splicing of Spars .1-15 Figure 1-5. Method of Splicing Solid or Laminated Rectangular Spars .1-17 Figure 1-6. Method of Splicing Solid Spars .1-18 Figure 1-7. Repairs to Built-Up Spar.1-19 Figure 1-8. Method of Splicing Box Spar Flanges (Plate Method).1-20 1-41. Spar Replacement .1-16 1-42. Splicing of Box Spar Webs .1-16 Figure 1-9. Method of Splicing Box Spar Webs .1-21 1-43. Replacing Solid-Type Spars With Laminated-Type Spars .1-16 1-44. Spar Longitudinal Cracks and Local Damage .1-16 Figure 1-10. Method of Reinforcing a Longitudinal Crack and-or Local Damage in a Solid Spar. .1-22 1-45. Elongated Holes in Spars .1-18 1-46. Rib Repairs.1-18 Figure 1-11. Repair of Wood Ribs.1-23 Figure 1-12. Typical Wing Compression Rib Repairs .1-24 1-47. Plywood Skin Repair.1-20 1-48. Determination of Single or Double Curvature .1-20 1-49. Repairs to Single Curvature Plywood Skin .1-20 Table 1-2. Minimum Recommended Bend Radii for Aircraft Plywood .1-25 1-50. Repairs to Double Curvature Plywood Skin.1-22 1-51. Types of Patches.1-25 Figure 1-13. Splayed Patch.1-27 Figure 1-14. Surface Patches.1-28 Figure 1-15. Scarf Patches (Back of Skin Accessible).1-29 Figure 1-16. Scarf Patches (Back of Skin Not Accessible).1-30 Figure 1-17. Oval Plug Patch Assembly.1-32 Figure 1-18. Round Plug Patch Assembly.1-33 1-52. Fabric Patch.1-31

SECTION 5. FINISHING WOOD STRUCTURES 1-64. General.1-35 1-65. Acceptable Finishes.1-35 1-66. Precautions.1-35 1-67. Finishing of Interior Surfaces.1-36 1-68. Finishing of Exterior Surfaces.1-36 1-69. Finishing of End Grain Surfaces.1-36 1-70. Finishing with Fabric or Tape.1-37 1-71. Sealing of Bolt Holes.1-37

CHAPTER 2. FABRIC COVERING

SECTION 1. PRACTICES AND PRECAUTIONS 2-1. General.2-1 2-2. Problem Areas.2-1 2-3. Aircraft Fabric-Synthetic.2-1 2-4. Aircraft Fabric-Natural .2-2 Table 2-1. Cotton and Linen Fabrics.2-3 2-5. Recovering Aircraft.2-2 Table 2-2. Cotton and Linen, Tapes and Threads .2-4 2-6. Preparation of the Structure for Covering .2-2 2-7. Fabric Seams.2-5 Figure 2-1. Fabric Seams .2-7 Figure 2-2. Typical Methods of Attaching Fabric.2-8 2-8. Covering Methods.2-9 2-9. Reinforcing Tape.2-10 Figure 2-3. Exploded Side View of Rib.2-10 2-10. Lacing .2-11 Figure 2-4. Standard External Modified Seine Knot Used for Single and Double Rib Lacing.2-11 Figure 2-5. Starting Stitch for Rib Lacing.2-12 Figure 2-6. Standard Single-Loop Lacing.2-13 Figure 2-7. Standard Knot for Double-Loop Lacing.2-14 Figure 2-8. Standard Double-Loop Lacing (Optional).2-15 Figure 2-9a. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .2-16 Figure 2-9b. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .2-17 Figure 2-9c. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .2-18 Figure 2-10. Splice Knot .2-19 Figure 2-11. Blindstitch Lacing - Square Knot Secured with Half Hitches .2-20 2-11. Stitch Spacing .2-19 Figure 2-12. Fabric Attachment Spacing .2-21 2-12. Fasteners.2-21 2-13. Finishing Tape .2-22 2-14. Inspection Rings and Drain Grommets.2-22

SECTION 2. APPLICATION OF DOPE 2-20. General.2-25 Table 2-3. Safety Tips for Dope-Paint.2-26 Table 2-4. Tips for Doping .2-26 2-21. Dope Application Procedure (Natural Fabrics).2-26 2-22. Covering Over Plywood .2-28 2-23. Coating Application Defects .2-29
SECTION 3. INSPECTION AND TESTING 2-30. General.2-33 2-31. Fabric Identification .2-34 2-32. Coating Identification.2-34 2-33. Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric .2-35 2-34. Fabric Testing .2-35 2-35. Rejuvenation of Dope Film .2-36
SECTION 4. REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERING 2-42. General.2-37 2-43. Repair of Tears and Access Openings.2-37 Figure 2-13 Repair of Tears in Fabric .2-38 2-44. Sewn-Patch Repair.2-38 Figure 2-14 Hand-Stitch Detail.2-39 2-45. Doped-On Patch Repair .2-39

CHAPTER 3. FIBERGLASS AND PLASTICS

SECTION 1. REPAIR OF LIGHT LOAD LAMINATE STRUCTURES 3-1. General.3-1 3-2. Fiberglass Laminate Repairs.3-1 Figure 3-1. Typical Laminate (Facing) Repair.3-2 Figure 3-2. Typical Core and Facing Repair.3-2 Figure 3-3. Typical Stepped Joint Repair.3-3 3-3. Repairing Holes.3-3 Figure 3-4. Preparing the Fiberglass Sandwich .3-3 Figure 3-5. Scarfed Repair to a Nonstructural Laminated Fiberglass Component.3-4 Figure 3-6. Balanced Layup Same as Original Number of Plies, Plus One Extra Ply .3-4 Figure 3-7. Typical Scarf Joint Repair .3-5 Figure 3-8. Carefully Cut Through Each Layer of Fiberglass Cloth and Remove it From the Damaged Area.3-5 3-4. Sample Bagging and Curing Process.3-5 Figure 3-9. Sample Bagging Layup Cross Section.3-6

SECTION 2. METALLIC SANDWICH SECONDARY STRUCTURE REPAIRS 3-10. Repairs to Metallic Sandwich Secondary Structure .3-9 Figure 3-10. Typical Types of Core Replacement.3-10 Figure 3-11. Typical Undercut Core Material Cavity.3-10 Figure 3-12. Cross Section of Bonded and Bolted Overlap Repairs.3-11 Figure 3-13. Honeycomb Core Removal.3-11 Figure 3-14. Removing Honeycomb Core from a Tapered Control Surface.3-11 Figure 3-15. Removal of Core with Core Knife .3-11 Figure 3-16. Details of Core Repair .3-12 3-11. Finishing .3-12
SECTION 3. TRANSPARENT PLASTICS 3-18. General.3-15 3-19. Storage and Handling.3-15 3-20. Forming Procedures and Techniques.3-15 3-21. Heating.3-16 Figure 3-17. Hanging of Acrylic Sheets.3-16 3-22. Forms .3-16 3-23. Forming Methods.3-17 Table 3-1. Typical Temperatures for Forming Acrylic Sheets.3-17 Figure 3-18. Drill Having an Included Angle of Approximately 150, Used to Drill Acrylic Plastics.3-18 Figure 3-19. Unibit Drill for Drilling Acrylic Plastics .3-18 Figure 3-20. Applying Pressure to Acrylic Plastics.3-19 3-24. Repair of Plastics.3-19 Figure 3-21. Stop-Drilling Cracks.3-20 Figure 3-22. Surface Patches.3-20 Figure 3-23. Plug Patch Repair .3-21 3-25. Cleaning and Polishing Transparent Plastic .3-21 3-26. Replacement Panels .3-21 3-27. Installation Procedures .3-22
SECTION 4. WINDSHIELDS, ENCLOSURES, AND WINDOWS 3-40. General.3-23 Figure 3-24. Temporary Repairs to Cracked Windshields or Windows .3-24 3-41. Protection .3-24 3-42. Windshield Installation .3-24

CHAPTER 4. METAL STRUCTURE, WELDING, AND BRAZING

SECTION 1. IDENTIFICATION OF METALS 4-1. General.4-1 Table 4-1. Ferrous (Iron) Alloy Materials.4-1 4-2. Identification of Steel Stock .4-1 Table 4-2. Numerical System for Steel Identification.4-2 Table 4-3. Examples of Stainless and Heat-Resistant Steels Nominal Composition (Percent).4-2 4-3. Interchangeability of Steel Tubing .4-2 4-4. Identification of Aluminum.4-2 Table 4-4. Basic Temper Designations and Subdivisions from Aluminum Alloys .4-3
SECTION 2. TESTING OF METALS 4-16. Hardness Testing.4-5 4-17. Rockwell Hardness Test.4-5 4-18. Brinell Hardness Test.4-5 4-19. Vickers Hardness Test.4-6 4-20. Microhardness Testing.4-6 4-21. Indentions.4-7 Figure 4-1. Comparison of Indentation Made by Knoop and Vickers Indenters in the Same Work Metal and at the Same Loads .4-7 4-22. Magnetic Testing .4-8 4-23. Aluminum Testing.4-8 Table 4-5. Hardness Values for Aluminum Alloys. (Reference MIL-H-6088G.).4-8
SECTION 3. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES 4-36. Flutter and Vibration Precautions .4-9 4-37. Load Factors for Repairs .4-10 4-38. Transfer of Stresses Within a Structure.4-10 4-39.4-49. -RESERVED.- .4-10

SECTION 4. METAL REPAIR PROCEDURES 4-50. General.4-11 4-51. Riveted (or Bolted) Steel Truss-Type Structures.4-11 4-52. Aluminum Alloy Structures.4-11 4-53. Selection of Aluminum for Replacement Parts.4-12 4-54. Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Parts.4-12 4-55. Bending Metal.4-13 Table 4-6. Recommended Radii for 90-Degree Bends in Aluminum Alloys .4-14 4-56. Setback .4-13 Figure 4-2. Setback for a 90-Degree Bend .4-13 Table 4-7. K-Chart for Determining Setback for Bends Other Than 90 Degrees .4-15 Figure 4-3. Methods of Determining Setbacks for Bends Other Than 90 Degrees.4-16 4-57. Riveting.4-14 Figure 4-4. Rivet Identification and Part Number Breakdown.4-16 Table 4-8. Aircraft Rivet Identification.4-17 Figure 4-5. Rivet Hole Spacing and Edge Distance for Single-Lap Sheet Splices.4-20 Figure 4-6. Riveting Practice and Rivet Imperfections.4-21 Figure 4-7. Self Plugging Friction-Lock Cherry Rivets .4-22 Figure 4-8. Mechanical-Lock (Bulbed Cherry) Cherry Rivet.4-23 Figure 4-9. Cherry Max Rivet .4-24 Figure 4-10. Olymic-Lok Rivet .4-25 Figure 4-11. Huck Rivet .4-26 4-58. Repair Methods and Precautions for Aluminum Structure.4-25 Figure 4-12. Typical Repair Method for Tubular Members of Aluminum Alloy .4-28 Figure 4-13. Typical Repair for Buckled or Cracked Metal Wing Rib Capstrips .4-29 Figure 4-14. Typical Metal Rib Repairs (Usually Found on Small and Medium-Size Aircraft).4-30 Figure 4-15. Typical Repairs of Trailing Edges.4-31 Figure 4-16. Typical Repairs of Stressed Sheet Metal Coverings .4-32 Figure 4-17. Typical Stringer and Flange Splices.4-33 Figure 4-18. Example of Stringer Splice (Material-2017 Alloy).4-34 Figure 4-19. Application of Typical Flange Splices and Reinforcement.4-35

Table 4-9. Number of Rivets Required for Splices (Single-Lap Joint) in Bare 2014-T6, 2024-T3, 2024-T3, and 7075-T6 Sheet, Clad 2014-T6, 2024-T3, 2024-T36, and 7075-T6 Sheet, 2024-T4, and 7075-T6 Plate, Bar, Rod, Tube, and Extrusions, 2014-T6 Extrusions.4-37 Table 4-10. Number of Rivets Required for Splices (Single-Lap Joint) in 2017, 1017 Alclad, 2024-T3 Alclad Sheet, Plate, Bar, Rod, Tube, and Extrusions.4-38 Table 4-11. Number of Rivets Required for Splices (Single-Lap Joint) in 5032 (All Hardnesses) Sheet .4-39 4-59. Repairing Cracked Members .4-40 Figure 4-20. Example of Intermediate Frame Stringer Splice (Material 2017-T3 AL Alloy) .4-41 Figure 4-21. Typical Methods of Repairing Cracked Leading and Trailing Edges and Rib Intersections.4-42 Figure 4-22. Typical Methods of Replacing Cracked Member at Fittings.4-43 Figure 4-23. Typical Methods of Repairing Cracked Frame and Stiffener Combination .4-44 Figure 4-24. Typical Repairs to Rudder and to Fuselage at Tail Post .4-45 4-60. Steel and Aluminum Fittings.4-40 Figure 4-25. Typical Methods of Repairing Elongated or Worn Bolt Holes.4-46 4-61. Castings.4-40 4-62. Selective Plating in Aircraft Maintenance .4-40 SECTION 5. WELDING AND BRAZING 4-74. General.4-53 Table 4-12. Current and Polarity Selection for Inert Gas Welding.4-54 Figure 4-26. Common Defects to Avoid when Fitting and Welding Aircraft Certification Cluster .4-55 Table 4-13. Torch Tip Sizes.4-55 Figure 4-27 Butt-Welding Strength Calculations.4-56 4-75. Types of Welding .4-56 Figure 4-28. Basic Gas-Welding Flames: Each has Distinctive Shape, Color and Sound. Neutral Flame is the Most Used .4-57 Figure 4-29.

Set TIG Welder to DC Current, Straight Polarity for Welding Mild Steel, Stainless Steel and Titanium .4-57 Figure 4-30. Set TIG to AC Current for Welding Aluminum and Magnesium.4-58 4-76. Electric-Resistance Welding .4-58 Figure 4-31. In Spot Welding, Heat is Produced by Electrical Resistance Between Copper Electrodes. Pressure is Simultaneously Applied to Electrode Tips to Force Metal Together to Complete Fusing Process. Spot-Weld-Nugget Size is Directly Related to Tip Size .4-58 4-77. Brazing.4-58 Table 4-14. Calculated Allowable Strength of Base Metal.4-59 Figure 4-32. Silver Brazing Joints.4-60 Figure 4-33. Electric Soldering Iron.4-61 4-78. Aircraft Parts Not to be Welded .4-61 4-79. Welding Rod Selection.4-62 Table 4-15. Chart Showing Welding Filler Rod Selection .4-62 4-80. Repair of Tubular Members .4-62 Figure 4-34. Finger Patch Repairs for Members Dented at a Cluster .4-63 4-81. Repair by Welded Sleeve.4-64 Figure 4-35. Members Dented in a Bay (Repairs by Welded Sleeve) .4-65 4-82. Repair by Bolted Sleeve.4-64 4-83.

Welded-Patch Repair .4-64 Figure 4-36. Welded Patch Repair .4-66 4-84. Splicing Tubing by Inner-Sleeve Method .4-64 Figure 4-37. Splicing by Inner-Sleeve Method .4-67 4-85. Splicing Tubing by Outer-Sleeve Method.4-66 Figure 4-38. Splicing by Outer-Sleeve Method (Replacement by Welded Outside Sleeve).4-68 Figure 4-39. Tube Replacement at a Station by Welded Outer Sleeves .4-69 4-86. Splicing Using Larger Diameter Replacement Tubes.4-67 Figure 4-40. Splicing Using Larger Diameter Replacement Tube.4-69 4-87. Repairs at Built-In Fuselage Fittings.4-70 Figure 4-41. Repairs at Built-In Fuselage Fittings .4-71 4-88. Engine-Mount Repairs.4-70 4-89. Built-Up Tubular Wing or Tail-Spars.4-72 Figure 4-42. Streamline Tube Splice Using Round Tube (Applicable to Landing Gear) .4-73 4-90. Wing-Brace Struts and Tail-Brace Struts.4-72 Figure 4-43. Streamline Tube Splice Using Split Sleeve (Applicable to Wing and Tail Surface Brace Struts and Other Members) .4-74 4-91. Landing Gear Repair.4-72 Figure 4-44. Streamline Tube Splice Using Split Insert (Applicable to Landing Gear) .4-75 Figure 4-45. Streamline Tube Splice Using Plates (Applicable to Landing Gear).4-76 Figure 4-46. Representative Types of Repairable Axle Assemblies .4-77 Figure 4-47. Landing Gear Assemblies that Cannot be Repaired by Welding .4-78 4-92. Repairs to Welded Assemblies.4-73 4-93. Stainless Steel Structure .4-74
SECTION 6. WELDING AND BRAZING SAFETY 4-104. General.4-79 4-105. Fire and Explosion Safety .4-79 4-106. Welding Work Area.4-79 4-107. Fire Protection.4-79 4-108. Protective Apparel.4-80 4-109. First-Aid Kits .4-80

CHAPTER 5. NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI)

SECTION 1. GENERAL 5-1. General.5-1 5-2. Approved Procedures .5-1 5-3. NDT Levels.5-1 5-4. Training, Qualification, and Certification.5-2 5-5. Flaws .5-2 5-6. Selecting the NDI Method .5-5 Table 5-1. Advantages and Disadvantages of NDI Methods.5-7 5-7. Types of Inspections.5-6
SECTION 2. VISUAL INSPECTION 5-15. General.5-9 5-16. Simple Visual Inspection Aids.5-9 5-17. Borescopes.5-10 Figure 5-1. Typical Borescope Designs.5-11 5-18. Visual Inspection Procedures .5-10 Figure 5-2. Using a flashlight to Inspect for Cracks.5-13
SECTION 3. EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION 5-25. Eddy Current Inspection .5-15 Figure 5-3. Generating an Eddy Current.5-15 Figure 5-4. Detecting an Eddy Current.5-15 Figure 5-5. Typical Instrument Displays.5-16 5-26. Eddy Current Coils and Probes.5-15 5-27. Field Application of Eddy Current Inspection .5-15 5-28. Surface Inspection.5-16 Figure 5-6. Typical Surface Cracks.5-16 5-29. Subsurface Inspection.5-17 Figure 5-7. Typical Subsurface Cracks.5-18 5-30. Corrosion Inspection .5-17 Figure 5-8. Typical Structural Corrosion .5-18 5-31. Establishing Eddy Current Inspection Procedures.5-17
SECTION 4. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION 5-40. General.5-19 5-41. Principles of Operation.5-19 Figure 5-9. Magnetic field Disrupted .5-19 Figure 5-10. Crack Detection by Magnetic Particle Inspection.5-19 5-42. Applications .5-20 5-43. Electrical Magnetizing Equipment .5-20 5-44. Materials Used in Magnetic Particle Inspection.5-20 Table 5-2. Listing of Commonly Accepted Standards and Specifications for Magnetic Particle Inspection.5-21 5-45. Preparation of Surface.5-22 5-46. Methods of Examination.5-22 5-47. Application of Magnetic Particles.5-22 5-48. Magnetization .5-23 Figure 5-11. Circular Magnetization.5-23 Figure 5-12. Longitudinal Magnetization .5-24 5-49. Determination of Field Strength .5-25 5-50. Special Examination Techniques.5-25 5-51. Demagnetization and Post-Examination Cleaning.5-27

SECTION 5. PENETRANT INSPECTION 5-60. General.5-29 Figure 5-13. Penetrant and Developer Action.5-30 5-61. Equipment Used in the Penetrant Inspection Process .5-29 Table 5-3. Classification of Penetrant Inspection Materials Covered by MIL-I-25135E.5-30 5-62. Basic Steps to Perform Penetration Inspection.5-29 Table 5-4. Fluorescent and Visible Penetrant Inspection General Processing Procedures Flowsheet.5-31 Table 5-5. Pre-Cleaning Methods for Penetrant Inspection.5-32 5-63. Cleaners.5-33 5-64. Technical Standards.5-34 Table 5-6. Listing of Commonly Accepted Standards and Specifications for Penetrant Inspection .5-35
SECTION 6. RADIOGRAPHY (X-RAY) INSPECTION 5-73. General.5-37 Figure 5-14. Radiography.5-38 5-74. Limitations .5-37 5-75. Film or Paper Radiography.5-37 5-76. Real-Time Radiography.5-37 5-77. Advantage of Real-Time Radiography Over Film Radiography.5-37 5-78. Computed Tomography (CT).5-37 5-79. Uses of Radiography .5-38 5-80. Comparison with Other NDI Methods.5-38 5-81. Flaws .5-39 5-82. Field Inspection.5-39 5-83. Safety.5-39

SECTION 7. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 5-89. General.5-41 Figure 5-15. Ultrasound .5-42 5-90. Sound Reflection .5-41 5-91. Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques .5-41 Figure 5-16. Pulse-Echo and through-Transmission Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques .5-42 5-92. Flaw Detection .5-41 5-93. Basic Equipment .5-41 Figure 5-17. Typical Portable Ultrasonic Inspection Instrument .5-43 Figure 5-18. Example of Position fixture and Shoe .5-44 Figure 5-19. Example of the Use if a Transducer Positioning Fixture.5-44 Figure 5-20. Example of a Typical Reference Standard.5-44 5-94. Inspection of Bonded Structures.5-43 Figure 5-21. Examples of Bonded Structure Configurations and Suggested Inspection Coverage.5-47 Table 5-7. Acceptable Ultrasonic Inspection Methods Associated with the Example Bonded Structure Configurations Shown in Figure 5-21.5-48 Table 5-8. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures .5-49 5-95. Bond Testing Instruments.5-46 5-96. Thickness Measurements.5-50 5-97. Leak Testing.5-50
SECTION 8. TAP TESTING 5-105. General.5-53 Figure 5-22. Sample of Special Tap Hammer.5-53
SECTION 9. ACOUSTIC-EMISSION 5-112. General.5-53 5-113. Applications .5-54
SECTION 10. THERMOGRAPHY 5-120. General.5-54 SECTION 11. HOLOGRAPHY 5-127. General.5-54 SECTION 12. SHEAROGRAPHY 5-134. General.5-55

CHAPTER 6. CORROSION, INSPECTION - PROTECTION

SECTION 1. GENERAL 6-1. General.6-1 Figure 6-1. Simplified Corrosion Cell Showing Conditions which Must Exist for Electrochemical Corrosion.6-2 Figure 6-2. Elimination of Corrosion by Application of an Organic Film to Metal Surface.6-2 6-2. Factors Influencing Corrosion.6-1 6-3. Common Corrosive Agents.6-3 6-4. Micro-Organisms.6-3
SECTION 2. TYPES OF CORROSION 6-11. General.6-5 Figure 6-3. Corrosion Attack.6-5 6-12. General Surface Corrosion.6-5 Figure 6-4. General Surface Corrosion .6-5 6-13. Pitting Corrosion.6-5 Figure 6-5(a). Pitting Corrosion (External View) .6-5 Figure 6-5(b). Pitting Corrosion (Magnified Cross
Section).6-5 6-14. Concentration Cell Corrosion .6-6 Figure 6-6. Concentration Cell Corrosion.6-6 6-15. Active-Passive Cells.6-6 Figure 6-7. Active-Passive Cell.6-7 6-16. Filiform Corrosion .6-7 Figure 6-8. Filiform Corrosion.6-7 6-17. Intergranular Corrosion .6-7 Figure 6-9. Intergranular Corrosion of 7050-T6 Aluminum Adjacent to Steel Fastener.6-8 6-18. Exfoliation Corrosion.6-7 Figure 6-10. Exfoliation Corrosion .6-8 6-19. Galvanic Corrosion .6-8 Figure 6-11. Galvanic Corrosion of Magnesium Adjacent to Steel Fastener.6-9 6-20. Stress Corrosion Cracking .6-8 Figure 6-12. Stress Corrosion Cracking.6-9 6-21. Fatigue Corrosion.6-9 6-22. Fretting Corrosion.6-10 Figure 6-13. Fretting Corrosion .6-10

SECTION 3. CORROSION PROTECTION MEASURES FOR BASIC MATERIALS 6-29. General.6-11 6-30. Anodizing and Related Processes.6-11 6-31. Plating .6-11 6-32. Phosphate Rust-Proofing.6-11 6-33. Chrome-Pickle Treatment.6-11 6-34. Dichromate Treatment.6-11 6-35. Stannate Immersion Treatment.6-11 6-36. Galvanic Anodizing Treatment.6-12 6-37. Cladding.6-12 6-38. Metal Spraying.6-12 6-39. Shot-Peening.6-12 6-40. Organic Coatings .6-12 6-41. Dope Proofing .6-12 6-42. Tube Interiors.6-12
SECTION 4. CORROSION PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE 6-50. Guidelines: All Aircraft.6-13 6-51. Guidelines: Aircraft Operating Over Salt Water.6-13 SECTION 5. VISUAL CORROSION INSPECTION GUIDE FOR AIRCRAFT 6-63. General.6-15 6-64. Exhaust Trail Areas .6-15 6-65. Battery Compartments and Battery Vent Openings.6-15 6-66. Lavatories and Galleys .6-15 6-67. Bilge Areas.6-15 6-68. Wheel Wells and Landing Gear.6-15 6-69. External Skin Areas .6-15 6-70. Water Entrapment Areas .6-16 6-71. Engine Frontal Areas .6-16 6-72. Electronic Package Compartments .6-16 6-73. Flexible Hose Assemblies.6-16 6-74. Sandwich Panels .6-16 6-75. Control Cables.6-16 6-76. Integral Fuel Cells.6-16 6-77. Electrical Connectors .6-16

SECTION 6. CORROSION REMOVAL PROCEDURES 6-89. General.6-17 6-90. Safety Precautions .6-17 6-91. Corrosion Control Work Procedures.6-18
SECTION 7. BASIC CORROSION REMOVAL TECHNIQUES 6-113. General.6-21 6-114. Preparations for Rework.6-21 6-115. Fairing or Blending Reworked Areas .6-21 Table 6-1. Abrasives for Corrosion Removal.6-22 Figure 6-14. Typical Example of Acceptable Cleanup of Corrosion Pits.6-23 Figure 6-15. Blendout of Corrosion as a Single Depression .6-24 Figure 6-16. Blendout of Multiple Pits in a Corroded Area.6-24 6-116. Corrosion Removal by Blasting .6-22 6-117. Cleaners, Polishes, and Brighteners.6-22 6-118. Standard Methods .6-23
SECTION 8. ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS 6-132. General.6-25 6-133. Special Treatment of Anodized Surfaces .6-25 6-134. Repair of Aluminum Alloy Sheet Metal .6-25 6-135. Corrosion Removal Around Countersunk Fasteners in Aluminum Alloy.6-26 6-136. Examples of Removing Corrosion From Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys .6-26
SECTION 9. MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS 6-148. General.6-29 6.149. Treatment of Wrought Magnesium Sheets and Forgings .6-29 6.150. Repair of Magnesium Sheet Metal After Extensive Corrosion Removal.6-29 6.151. In-Place Treatment of Magnesium Castings.6-30 6.152. Example of Removing Corrosion from Magnesium.6-30

SECTION 10. FERROUS METALS 6-164. General.6-35 6-165. Special Treatment of High Strength Steel.6-35 6-166. Special Treatment of Stainless Steel .6-35 6-167. Example of Removing Corrosion from Ferrous Metals .6-36 SECTION 11. OTHER METALS AND ALLOYS 6-179. Noble Metal Coatings - Cleanup and Restoration.6-37 6-180. Copper and Copper Alloys.6-37 6-181. Titanium and Titanium Alloys.6-37 SECTION 12. PLATED PARTS 6-193. Chromium and Nickel Plated Parts.6-39 6-194. Cadmium and Zinc Plated Parts .6-39 SECTION 13. CORROSION PROOFING OF LAND PLANES CONVERTED TO SEA PLANES 6-206. General.6-41 6-207. Necessary Minimum Precautions.6-41 6-208. Recommended Precautions .6-41 SECTION 14. HANDLING AND CARE OF AIRCRAFT RECOVERED FROM WATER IMMERSION 6-220. General.6-43 6-221. Initial Fresh Water or Detergent Wash .6-43 6-222. Reciprocating Engines and Propellers .6-43 6-223. Airframe.6-43

CHAPTER 7. AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, CONTROL CABLES, AND TURNBUCKLES

SECTION 1. RIVETS 7-1. General.7-1 7-2. Material Applications.7-1 SECTION 2. SCREWS 7-14. General.7-3 7-15. Structural Screws .7-3 7-16. Machine Screws .7-3 7-17. Panhead Screws (NAS600 through NAS606, NAS610 through NAS616, NAS623, and NAS1402 through NAS1406).7-3 7-18. Self-Tapping Screws .7-3 7-19. Wood Screws.7-4 7-20.7-33. -RESERVED.-.7-4
SECTION 3. BOLTS 7-34. General.7-5 7-35. Bolts .7-5 7-36. Identification .7-5 Figure 7-1. Typical Aircraft Bolt Markings .7-6 7-37. Grip Length.7-5 7-38. Locking or Safetying of Bolts.7-6 7-39. Bolt Fit .7-6 7-40. Torques.7-6 Figure 7-2. Torque Wrench with Various Adapters.7-8 Table 7-1. Recommended Torque Values (Inch-Pounds).7-9 7-41. Standard Aircraft Hex Head Bolts (AN3 through AN20).7-7 7-42. Drilled Head Bolts (AN73 through AN81).7-7 7-43. Engine Bolts.7-7 7-44. Close-Tolerance Bolts .7-9 7-45. Internal Wrenching Bolts (NAS144 through NAS158 and NAS172 through NAS176).7-10 7-46. Internal Wrenching Bolts (MS20004 through MS20024) and Six Hole, Drilled Socket Head Bolts (AN148551 through AN149350) .7-10 7-47. Twelve Point, External Wrenching Bolts, (NAS624 through NAS644) .7-10 7-48. Close-Tolerance Shear Bolts (NAS434) .7-10 7-49. NAS6200 Series Bolts.7-10 7-50. Clevis Bolts (AN21 through AN36).7-10 7-51. Eyebolts (AN42 through AN49) .7-10

SECTION 4. NUTS 7-63. General.7-11 7-64. Self-Locking Nuts .7-11 Table 7-2. Minimum Prevailing Torque Values for Reused Self-Locking Nuts.7-12 7-65. Nut Identification - Finishes.7-11 7-66. Castle Nut (AN310) .7-12 7-67. Castellated Shear Nut (AN320) .7-13 7-68. Plain Nut (AN315 and AN335) .7-13 7-69. Light Hex Nuts (AN340 and AN345).7-13 7-70. Checknut (AN316).7-13 7-71. Wingnuts (AN350) .7-13 7-72. Sheet Spring Nuts (AN365).7-13
SECTION 5. WASHERS 7-85. General.7-15 7-86. Plain Washers (AN960 and AN970) .7-15 7-87. Lockwashers (AN935 and AN936).7-15 7-88. Ball Socket and Seat Washers (AN950 and AN955).7-15 7-89. Taper Pin Washers (AN975).7-15 SECTION 6. PINS 7-101 Taper Pins .7-17 7-102 Flathead Pins (AN392 through AN406).7-17 7-103 Cotter Pins (AN380) .7-17 7-104 Spring Pins.7-17 7-105 Quick-Release Pins.7-17 7-106.7-121. -RESERVED.- .7-17
SECTION 7. SAFETYING 7-122. General.7-19 7-123. Safety Wire.7-19 Figure 7-3. Securing Screws, Nuts, Bolts, and Snaprings.7-20 Figure 7-3a. Wire Twisting by Hand .7-20 7-124. Safety-Wiring Procedures .7-20 7-125. Twisting With Special Tools.7-21 Figure 7-4. Use of a Typical Wire Twister.7-22 7-126. Securing Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, and Valves .7-21 Figure 7-4a. Securing Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, and Valves.7-22 Figure 7-5. Safety-Wiring Procedures.7-23 Figure 7-5a. Safety-Wiring Procedures.7-24 Figure 7-5b. Safety-Wiring Procedures.7-25 7-127. Securing With Cotter Pins .7-26 Figure 7-6. Securing with Cotter Pins.7-26 Figure 7-7. Alternate Method for Securing with Cotter Pins .7-26

SECTION 8. INSPECTION AND REPAIR OF CONTROL CABLES AND TURNBUCKLES 7-140. General.7-27 7-141. Cable Definitions.7-27 7-142. Flexible Cables.7-27 Table 7-3. Flexible Cable Construction and Physical Properties .7-28 Figure 7-8. Flexible Cable Cross Section .7-29 7-143. Nylon-Coated Cables.7-27 7-144. Nonflexible Cables .7-28 Table 7-4. Nonflexible Cable Construction and Physical Properties .7-29 Figure 7-9. Nonflexible Cable Cross Section .7-29 7-145. Cable Specifications .7-29 7-146. Cable Proof Loads .7-29 7-147. Replacement of Cables.7-30 7-148. Mechanically-Fabricated Cable Assemblies.7-30 Table 7-5. Straight-Shank Terminal Dimensions. (Cross Reference AN to MS: AN-666 to MS2159, AN-667 to MS 20667, AN-668 to MS 20668, AN-669 to MS 21260.).7-31 Figure 7-10. Insertion of Cable Into Terminal .7-31 Figure 7-11. Gauging Terminal Shank After Swaging.7-31 Figure 7-12. Typical Cable Splices.7-32 Figure 7-13. Typical Terminal Gauge.7-32 Figure 7-14. Typical Thimble-Eye Splice .7-33 Table 7-6. Copper Oval Sleeve Data.7-34 Table 7-7. Copper Stop Sleeve Data .7-34 Figure 7-15. Typical Terminal Gauge.7-34 7-149. Cable System Inspection .7-35 Figure 7-16. Cable Inspection Technique .7-35 Figure 7-17. Cable Wear Patterns .7-36 Figure 7-18. Worn Cable (Replacement Necessary) .7-36 Figure 7-19. Internal Cable Wear.7-37 Figure 7-20. Pulley Wear Patterns.7-38 7-150. Corrosion and Rust Prevention .7-38 Figure 7-21. Corrosion .7-39 7-151. Wire Splices .7-39 Figure 7-22. Manufacturer’s Wire Splice.7-39 7-152. Cable Maintenance.7-39 7-153. Cable Tension Adjustment.. 7-39

CHAPTER 8. ENGINES, FUEL, EXHAUST, AND PROPELLERS

SECTION 1. ENGINES 8-1. General.8-1 8-2. Special Inspection .8-1 8-3. Crankshaft Inspection and Repair Requirements.8-3 8-4. Replacement Parts in Certificated Engines.8-3 8-5. Oil System Lines Inspection.8-4 8-6. Oil Filter Inspection .8-4 8-7. Cylinder Hold-Down Nuts and Cap Screws.8-4 8-8. Reuse of Safetying Devices .8-4 8-9. Self-Locking Nuts for Aircraft Engines and Accessories.8-4 8-10. Metallizing .8-5 8-11. Plating .8-5 Table 8-1. Current Engine and Maximum Permissible Cylinder Barrel Oversize.8-6 8-12. Corrosion.8-6 8-13. Engine Run-In.8-6 8-14. Compression Testing of Aircraft Engine Cylinders.8-6 Figure 8-1. Schematic of Differential Pressure Compression Tester.8-7 8-15. Spark Plugs .8-8 Figure 8-2. Chart of Spark Plug Temperature Ranges.8-9 Figure 8-3. Hot and Cold Spark Plugs .8-10 Figure 8-4. Spark Plug Reach .8-10 Figure 8-5. Method of Checking Spark Plug Gap.8-10 8-16. Operational Problems.8-11 Figure 8-6. Typical Carbon-Fouled Spark Plug .8-12 Figure 8-6a. Typical Lead-Fouled Spark Plug .8-12 Figure 8-6b. Typical Oil-Fouled Spark Plug.8-13 Figure 8-6c. Typical Spark Plug with Cracked Core Nose .8-13 Figure 8-6d. Typical Worn Out Spark Plug .8-14 Figure 8-6e. Typical Spark Plug with Bridged Electrodes.8-14 Figure 8-7. Spark Plug Well Flashover.8-14 8-17. Spark Plug Pre-Reconditioning Inspection .8-14 8-18. Ignition Harnesses Inspection .8-14 Figure 8-8. Typical Method of Clamping Leads .8-15 8-19. Magneto Inspection.8-15 Figure 8-9. Normal Contact Point.8-16 Figure 8-10. Point with Minor Irregularities.8-16 Figure 8-11. Point with Well-Defined Mound .8-16 8-20. Magneto-to-Engine Timing .8-17

SECTION 2. FUEL SYSTEMS 8-30. General.8-19 8-31. Fuel Lines and Fittings.8-19 Figure 8-12. Location of Clamps at Tube Bends.8-20 8-32. Fuel Tanks and Cells.8-19 8-33. Fuel Tank Caps, Vents, and Overflow Lines .8-20 8-34. Fuel Cross-Feed, Firewall Shutoff, and Tank Selector Valves.8-21 8-35. Fuel Pumps.8-21 8-36. Fuel Filters, Strainers, and Drains .8-21 8-37. Indicator Systems .8-22 8-38. Fuel System Precautions.8-22
SECTION 3. EXHAUST SYSTEMS 8-45. General.8-23 8-46. Muffler-Heat Exchanger Failures.8-23 Figure 8-13. Typical Muffler Wall Fatigue Failure at Exhaust Outlet. (A. Complete Muffler Assembly with Heat Shroud Removed; B. Detail View of Failure.) .8-23 Figure 8-14. Typical Muffler Wall Failure. (A. Complete Muffler Assembly with Heat Shroud Removed; B. Detail View of Failure; C. Cross Section of Failed Muffler.). 8--24 Figure 8-15. Typical Muffler Wall Fatigue Failure. (A. Complete Muffler Assembly with Heat Shroud Partially Removed; B. Detailed View of Failure.) .8-25 Figure 8-16. Typical Fatigue Failure of Muffler End Plate at Stack Inlet .8-25 8-47. Manifold-Stack Failures.8-23 8-48. Internal Muffler Failures.8-23 Figure 8-17. Section of a Muffler Showing Typical Internal Baffle Failure .8-25 Figure 8-18. Loose Pieces of a Failed Internal Baffle.8-25 Figure 8-19. Failed Internal Baffle Partially Obstructing the Muffler Outlet.8-27 Figure 8-20. Failed Internal Baffle Completely Obstructing the Muffler Outlet.8-27 Figure 8-21a. Example of Exhaust Outlet Guard.8-27 Figure 8-21b. Example of Exhaust Outlet Guard Installed.8-27 8-49. Inspection.8-26 Figure 8-22. Effect of Improperly Positioned Exhaust Pipe-Muffler Clamp.8-28 Figure 8-23. Primary Inspection Areas .8-28 8-50. Repairs .8-26 8-51. Turbo-Supercharger .8-27 8-52. Augmentor Systems .8-28

SECTION 4. REPAIR OF METAL PROPELLERS 8-71. General.8-29 8-72. Steel Blades.8-29 8-73. Aluminum Propeller Repairs .8-29 Figure 8-24. Method of Repairing Surface Cracks, Nicks, etc., on Aluminum-Alloy Propellers .8-30 Figure 8-25. Correct and Incorrect Method of Reworking Leading Edge of Aluminum-Alloy Propellers .8-30 Figure 8-26. Method of Repairing Damaged tip of Aluminum-Alloy Propellers .8-31 8-74. Repair Limits.8-31 Figure 8-27. Example 1. Determine the Repair Width Limits.8-32 Figure 8-28. Example 2. Determine the Repair Thickness Limits.8-34 8-75. Steel Hubs and Hub Parts.8-33 8-76. Propeller Hub and Flange Repair.8-33 Figure 8-29. Repair of Fixed-Pitch Hub and Propeller with Elongated or Damaged Bolt Holes.8-35 8-77. Control Systems .8-34 8-78. Deicing Systems.8-34 8-79.8-90.
SECTION 5. INSPECTION OF PROPELLERS 8-91. General.8-37 Table 8-2. Sample Manufacturer’s Propeller Inspection Checklist .8-38 8-92. Wood or Composition Propellers and Blades.8-37 8-93. Metal Propellers and Blades.8-38 8-94. Propeller Hub .8-39 8-95. Tachometer Inspection.8-40
SECTION 6. PROPELLER TRACKING AND VIBRATION 8-107 General.8-41 8-108 Propeller Tracking Check .8-41 Figure 8-30. Propeller Tracking (Wood Block or Cowling Fixture Shown).8-42 8-109. Vibration .8-41

CHAPTER 9. AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

SECTION 1. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF LANDING GEAR 9-1. General.9-1 9-2. General Inspection .9-1 9-3. Cleaning and Lubricating .9-1 9-4. Fixed-Gear Inspection.9-1 Table 9-1. Bungee Cord Color Codes .9-2 9-5. Inspection of Retractable Landing Gear.9-3 9-6. Emergency Systems .9-3 9-7. Landing Gear Components.9-4 9-8. Tire and Tube Maintenance.9-5 9-9. Floats and Skis .9-6 Figure 9-1. A Typical Ski Installation.9-6 9-10. Inspection and Repair of Floats and Skis .9-7 9-11. Types of Landing Gear Problems.9-8 Figure 9-2. Typical Bolt Cracks .9-8 Figure 9-3. Typical Cracks Near Bolt Holes .9-8 Figure 9-4. Typical Bolt Hole Cracks.9-9 Figure 9-5. Typical Rod-End Cracks.9-9 Figure 9-6. Typical Torque Tube Bolt Hole Elongation.9-9 9-12. Special Inspections.9-9 9-13. Retraction Tests.9-9 9-14. Tire Inspection and Repair.9-9 Figure 9-7. Examples of Tread Wear Indicating Over-Inflation and Under-Inflation.9-11 9-15. Inflation of Tires.9-10 9-16. Wheel Inspection.9-11 9-17. Wheel Installation .9-11 9-18. Reassembling the Wheel.9-11 9-19. Slip.9-12
SECTION 2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 9-25. General.9-13 9-26. Purposes of Hydraulic Systems.9-13 9-27. Types of Hydraulic Fluid.9-13 9-28. Handling Hydraulic Fluids.9-14 9-29. Hydraulic System Maintenance Practices .9-15 9-30. Hydraulic Lines and Fittings.9-18 Table 9-2. Tube Data .9-19 Figure 9-8. Hose Assembly Instructions (Can Be Used for Low Pressure Hydraulic Fluid, and Oil Line Applications) .9-21 Table 9-3. Aircraft Hose Specifications .9-22 Figure 9-9. Proper Hose Installations.9-23 Figure 9-10. Minimum Bend Radii.9-24 Table 9-4. Ball Diameters for Testing Hose Restrictions or Kinking .9-25 Figure 9-11. Suggested Handling of Preformed Hose .9-25

SECTION 3. EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT 9-37. Life Rafts.9-27 9-38. Life Raft Inspections .9-27 Figure 9-12. Inflation Valve.9-29 9-39. Survival Kit Inspection.9-28 9-40. Special Inspections.9-31 9-41. Inspection Record.9-32 9-42. Raft Repairs.9-32 Figure 9-13. Repair Dimensions .9-33 9-43. Life Preservers.9-34 9-44. Life Preserver Inspection.9-35 9-45. Repair of Life Preservers.9-36 9-46. Miscellaneous Equipment.9-36 9-47. Oxygen Systems.9-37 9-48. Inspection.9-37 9-49. Maintenance.9-38 Figure 9-14. Oxygen Cylinder Damage .9-39 Figure 9-15. Cylinder Brackets and Clamps .9-39 9-50. Functional Testing After Repair.9-41 9-51. Service Requirements --Oxygen Cylinders .9-41 Table 9-5. Table of Filling Pressures .9-43
SECTION 4. CABIN INTERIOR 9-60. General.9-45 9-61. Car-3 Aircraft Interior.9-45 9-62. Part 23 Aircraft Interior .9-45 9-63. Source of Information .9-46 9-64. Upholstery and-or Belts.9-46 9-65.9-70. -RESERVED.- .9-46

CHAPTER 10. WEIGHT AND BALANCE

SECTION 1. TERMINOLOGY 10-1. General.10-1 10-2. Terminology.10-1 Figure 10-1. Typical Datum Locations.10-2 Figure 10-2. Illustration of Arm (or Moment Arm).10-3 Figure 10-3. Example of Moment Computation .10-4 Figure 10-4. Empty Weight Center of Gravity Formulas.10-5 Figure 10-5. Empty Weight and Empty Center of Gravity - Tail-Wheel Type Aircraft .10-6 Figure 10-6. Empty Weight and Empty Weight Center of Gravity - Nosewheel Type Aircraft .10-7 Figure 10-7. Operating Center of Gravity Range.10-8 Figure 10-8. Weighing Point Centerline.10-9 10-3.10-13. -RESERVED.-. 10-9

SECTION 2. WEIGHING PROCEDURES 10-14. General.10-11 10-15. Procedures.10-11 Figure 10-9. Empty Weight and Empty Weight Center of Gravity When Aircraft is Weighed With Oil.10-12 10-16. Weight and Balance Computations.10-11 10-17. Weight and Balance Extreme Conditions.10-13 Figure 10-10. Example of Check of Most Forward Weight and Balance Extreme.10-14 Figure 10-11. Example of Check of Most Rearward Weight and Balance Extreme.10-16 10-18. Loading Conditions and-or Placards.10-15 Figure 10-12. Loading Conditions: Determination of the Number of Passengers and Baggage Permissible with Full Fuel .10-17 Figure 10-13. Loading Conditions: Determination of the Fuel and Baggage Permissible with Maximum Passengers.10-18 Figure 10-14. Loading Conditions: Determination of the Fuel and the Number and Location of Passengers Permissible with Maximum Baggage .10-19 10-19. Equipment List.10-15 10-20. Equipment Change .10-15 Figure 10-15. Effects of the Addition of Equipment Items on Balance.10-20 Figure 10-16. Example of Moment and Weight Changes Resulting From Equipment Changes.10-21 10-21. Sample Weight and Balance Report .10-20 Figure 10-17. Sample Weight and Balance Report to Determine Empty Weight Center of Gravity.10-22 Figure 10-18. Sample Weight and Balance Report Including an Equipment Change for Aircraft Fully Loaded.10-23 10-22. Installation of Ballast .10-20 Figure 10-19. Permanent Ballast Computation Formula .10-24 10-23. Loading Schedule.10-24

CHAPTER 11. AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

SECTION 1. INSPECTION AND CARE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 11-1. General.11-1 11-2. Inspection and Operation Checks .11-1 11-3. Functional Check of Check of Stand-By or Emergency Equipment.11-2 11-4. Cleaning and Preservation .11-2 11-5. Battery Electrolyte Corrosion.11-2 11-6. Adjustment and Repair .11-2 11-7. Insulation of Electrical Equipment.11-2 11-8. Bus Bars .11-3
SECTION 2. STORAGE BATTERIES 11-15. General.11-5 11-16. Battery Charging.11-5 11-17. Battery Freezing.11-5 Table 11-1. Lead-Acid Battery Electrolyte Freezing Points.11-5 11-18. Temperature Correction.11-5 Table 11-2. Sulfuric Acid Temperature Correction .11-6 11-19. Battery Maintenance .11-6 11-20. Electrolyte Spillage .11-8 11-21. Noxious Fumes.11-9 11-22. Installation Practices .11-9 Figure 11-1. Battery Ventilating Systems .11-9
SECTION 3. INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION 11-30. General.11-11 11-31. Installation Clearance Provisions.11-11 11-32. Wires, Wire Bundles, and Circuit Protective Devices.11-11 11-33. Output Rating.11-11 11-34. Alternator Diodes.11-11 11-35. Static Electrical Power Converters.11-11 11-36. Acceptable Means of Controlling or Monitoring the Electrical Load.11-12 11-37. Determination of Electrical Load.11-12 11-38. Junction Box Construction.11-13

SECTION 4. INSPECTION OF CIRCUIT-PROTECTION DEVICES 11-47. General.11-15 11-48. Determination of Circuit Breaker Ratings .11-15 11-49. DC Circuit Protector Chart .11-15 Table 11-3. DC Wire and Circuit Protector Chart.11-15 11-50. Resettable Circuit Protection Devices.11-15 11-51. Circuit Breaker Usage.11-15 11-52. Circuit Breaker Maintenance.11-16 11-53. Switches .11-16 Table 11-4. Switch Derating Factors .11-17 Table 11-5. Selection of Contact Material .11-17 11-54. Relays.11-19 11-55. Load Considerations.11-20 11-56. Operating Conditions for Switches and Relays.11-20
SECTION 5. ELECTRICAL WIRE RATING 11-66. General.11-21 Table 11-6. Tabulation Chart (Allowable Voltage Drop).11-21 Table 11-7. Examples of Determining Required Wire Size Using Figure 11-2 .11-22 Table 11-8. Examples of Determining Maximum Run Length Using Figure 11-3.11-22 Figure 11-2. Conductor Chart, Continuous Flow.11-23 Figure 11-3. Conductor Chart, Intermittent Flow .11-24 Table 11-9. Current Carrying Capacity and Resistance of Copper Wire.11-25 Table 11-10. Current Carrying Capacity and Resistance of Aluminum Wire.11-25 11-67. Methods for Determining Current Carrying Capacity of Wires .11-26 Figure 11-4a. Single Copper Wire in Free Air.11-29 Figure 11-4b. Single Copper Wire in Free Air.11-30 Figure 11-5. Bundle Derating Curves .11-31 Figure 11-6. Altitude Derating Curve .11-32 11-68. Instructions for Use of Electrical Wire Chart.11-27 11-69. Computing Current Carrying Capacity.11-33
SECTION 6. AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL WIRE SELECTION 11-76. General.11-35 11-77. Aircraft Wire Materials.11-35 11-78. Substitutions.11-36

SECTION 7. TABLE OF ACCEPTABLE WIRES 11-85. Aircraft Wire Table.11-39 Table 11-11. Open Wiring.11-40 Table 11-12. Protected Wiring.11-41 11-86. Open Airframe Interconnecting Wire.11-39 11-87. Protected Wire.11-39 11-88. Severe Wind and Moisture Problems (SWAMP).11-39 11-89. Shielded Wire.11-39
SECTION 8. WIRING INSTALLATION INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS 11-96. General.11-43 11-97. Wiring Replacement .11-45 11-98. Terminals and Terminal Blocks.11-46 11-99. Fuses and Fuse Holders.11-46 11-100. Connectors .11-47 11-101. Junction Boxes, Panels, Shields, and Microswitch Housings .11-48 11-102. Conduit-Rigid Metallic, Flexible Metallic and Rigid Nonmetallic.11-48 11-103. Junctions.11-48 11-104. Circuit Breakers .11-49 11-105. System Separation.11-49 11-106. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) .11-49 11-107. Interference Tests .11-49 11-108. Identification Stencils and Placards On Electrical Equipment .11-50
SECTION 9. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND INSPECTION 11-115. Maintenance and Operations .11-51 11-116. Group and Bundle Ties .11-51 Figure 11-7. Group and Bundle Ties.11-51 Figure 11-8. Comb for Straightening Wires in Bundles .11-51 11-117. Minimum Wire Bend Radii .11-51 11-118. Slack.11-52 Figure 11-9. Slack Between Supports .11-52 11-119. Power Feeders .11-52 11-120. RF Cable.11-52 11-121. Precautions.11-52 11-122. Moisture Protection, Wheel Wells, and Landing Gear Areas.11-53 11-123. Protection Against Personnel and Cargo .11-53 11-124. Heat Precautions.11-53 11-125. Movable Controls Wiring Precautions.11-53 11-126. Flammable Fluids and Gases .11-53 Figure 11-10. Separation of Wires From Plumbing Lines .11-54

SECTION 10. SERVICE LOOP HARNESSES (PLASTIC TIE STRIPS) 11-135. General.11-55 11-136. Support.11-55 11-137. Anti-Chafing Material .11-55 11-138. Strain Relief .11-55 11-139. Service Loop.11-55 11-140.11-145. -RESERVED.-.11-56
SECTION 11. CLAMPING 11-146. General.11-57 Figure 11-11. Safe Angle for Cable Clamps .11-58 Figure 11-12. Typical Mounting Hardware for MS-21919 Cable Clamps .11-58 Figure 11-13. Installing Cable Clamp to Structure .11-59 Figure 11-14. Clamping at a Bulkhead Hole.11-60 11-147. Wire and Cable Clamps Inspection.11-57
SECTION 12. WIRE INSULATION AND LACING STRING TIE 11-155. General.11-61 11-156. Insulation Materials .11-61 11-157. Stripping Insulation.11-61 Table 11-13. Allowable Nicked or Broken Strands .11-62 11-158. Lacing and Ties.11-61 Figure 11-15. Single Cord Lacing.11-63 Figure 11-16. Double Cord Lacing .11-63 Figure 11-17. Making Ties.11-64 11-159. Insulation Tape.11-62
SECTION 13. SPLICING. 11-167 General.11-65 Figure 11-18. Staggered Splices in Wire Bundle .11-65
SECTION 14. TERMINAL REPAIRS 11-174. General.11-67 11-175. Attachment of Terminals to Studs .11-68 11-176. Studs and Insulators .11-68 11-177. Wire Terminals and Binding Posts.11-69 11-178. Crimp On Terminal Lugs and Splices .11-69 11-179. Lock Washers for Terminals On Equipment .11-70

SECTION 15. GROUNDING AND BONDING 11-185. General.11-71 11-186. Grounding.11-71 11-187. Bonding.11-73 11-188. Bonding Inspection .11-73 Figure 11-19. Millivolt Drop Test.11-74 11-189. Bonding Jumper Installations .11-75 Table 11-14. Stud Bonding or Grounding to Flat Surface.11-76 Table 11-15. Plate Nut Bonding or Grounding to Flat Surface .11-77 Table 11-16. Bolt and Nut Bonding or Grounding to Flat Surface.11-78 Figure 11-20. Copper Jumper Connector to Tubular Structure.11-79 Figure 11-21. Bonding Conduit to Structure.11-79 Figure 11-22. Aluminum Jumper Connection to Tubular Structure.11-79 11-190. Cree Distance.11-75 11-191. Fuel Systems.11-80 11-192. Electric Shock Prevention Bonding .11-80 11-193. Lightning Protection Bonding.11-80 11-194. Lightning Protection for Antennas and Air Data Probes.11-81 11-195. Static-Discharge Devices.11-81 11-196. Cleaning.11-81 11-197. Hardware Assembly .11-81

SECTION 16. WIRE MARKING 11-205. General.11-83 11-206. Wire Identification .11-83 11-207. Identification and Information Related to the Wire and Wiring Diagrams .11-83 11-208. Placement of Identification Markings.11-83 Figure 11-23. Spacing of Printed Identification Marks (Direct Marking) .11-84 Figure 11-24. Spacing of Printed Identification Marks (Indirect Marking).11-84 11-209. Types of Wire Markings .11-83 11-210. Hot Stamp Marking .11-84 11-211. Dot Matrix Marking.11-85 11-212. Ink Jet Marking.11-85 11-213. Laser Marking.11-85 11-214. Identification Sleeves .11-85 11-215. Identification Tape .11-86 11-216. Operating Conditions.11-86 11-217. Installation of Printed Sleeves .11-86 Table 11-17. Recommended Size of Identification Sleeving .11-86 11-218. Identification of Wire Bundles and Harnesses .11-86 Figure 11-25. Identification of Wire Bundles and Harnesses.11-86 11-219. Terminal Marking Sleeve and Tags.11-87 Figure 11-26. Standard Sleeves (135 C).11-87 Figure 11-27. Installation of Heat-Shrinkable Insulation Sleeves .11-87 11-220. Sleeves and Cable Markers Selection.11-87 Figure 11-28. Cable Markers .11-88 Figure 11-29. Tie-Down Strap Installation .11-88 Table 11-18. Selection Table for Standard Sleeves.11-88 Table 11-19. Selection Table for Thin-Wall Sleeves .11-88 Table 11-20. Selection Table for High-Temperature Sleeves .11-89 Table 11-21. Selection Table for Cable Markers .11-89 Table 11-22. Plastic Tie-Down Straps (MS3367, Type I, Class 1).11-89 Figure 11-30. Tie-Down Strap Installation Tool.11-89 Figure 11-31. Completed Installation.11-90 11-221. Temporary Wire and Cable Marking Procedure.11-90 Figure 11-32. Temporary Wire Identification Marker .11-90 11-222. Marker Sleeve Installation After Printing.11-90 Figure 11-33. Inserting Wire Into Marker .11-90 Figure 11-34. Shrinking Marker on Wire.11-90 11-223.11-229. -RESERVED.-.11-90

SECTION 17. CONNECTORS 11-230. General.11-91 11-231. Selection.11-91 11-232. Types of Connectors.11-91 Figure 11-35. Connector Information Example.11-92 Figure 11-36. Different Types of Connectors.11-93 Figure 11-37. Coax Cable Connectors .11-94 11-233. Voltage and Current Rating.11-96 11-234. Spare Contacts (Future Wiring).11-97 11-235. Installation.11-97 11-236. Feed-Through Bulkhead Wire Protection .11-98 11-237. Special Purpose Connector.11-98 11-238. Potting Compounds.11-98 11-239. Potting Connectors.11-98 Figure 11-38. Spare Wires for Potting Connector.11-99 11-240. Through Bolts .11-99 11-241.11-247. -RESERVED.-.11-99 9-8-98 AC 43.13-1B

SECTION 18. CONDUITS 11-248. General.11-101 11-249. Size of Conduit.11-101 11-250. Conduit Fittings .11-101 11-251. Conduit Installation.11-101 11-252. Rigid Conduit.11-101 Table 11-23. Bend Radii for Rigid Conduit.11-101 11-253. Flexible Conduit.11-102 Table 11-24. Minimum Bending Radii for Flexible Aluminum or Brass Conduit.11-102
SECTION 19. PROTECTION OF UNUSED CONNECTORS 11-260. General.11-103 11-261. Quick Reference Chart.11-103 Table 11-25. Contact Cavity Sealing-Quick Reference .11-104 11-262. Unpressurized Area Connectors.11-103 Figure 11-39. Stub Wire Installation.11-104 Table 11-26. Sealing Rod Dimensions .11-104 11-263. Pressurized Areas.11-103 Figure 11-40. Sealing Unused Contact Cavities-Unpressurized Areas-(Cut-Away View) .11-104 11-264.11-270. -RESERVED.- . 11-104
SECTION 20. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS 11-271. General.11-105 11-272. Symbols.11-105 Table 11-27. Electronic-Electrical Symbols. 11-105 11-273.11-283. -RESERVED.- . 11-118

CHAPTER 12. AIRCRAFT AVIONICS SYSTEMS

SECTION 1. AVIONICS EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE 12-1. General.12-1 12-2. Handling of Components. . 12-1 12-3.12-7. -RESERVED.-. 12-1
SECTION 2. GROUND OPERATIONAL CHECKS FOR AVIONICS EQUIPMENT (ELECTRICAL) 12-8. General.12-3 12-9. Inspection of Avionics System .12-3 12-10. Communication Systems.12-5 12-11. VHF Omni-Directional Range (VOR).12-5 12-12. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) .12-5 12-13. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF).12-5 12-14. Instrument Landing Systems (ILS).12-6 12-15. Marker Beacon.12-6 12-16. Long Range Navigation (LORAN).12-6 12-17. Global Positioning System (GPS) .12-7 12-18. Autopilot Systems .12-7 12-19. Altimeters.12-7 12-20. Transponders.12-7 12-21. Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT).12-8 12-22. Inspection of ELT.12-8 12-23. Flight Data Recorder.12-9 12-24. Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVR) .12-10 12-25. Weather Radar .12-10 12-26. Radome Inspection.12-10 12-27. Data Bus.12-11 12-28.12-36. -RESERVED.-.12-11
SECTION 3. GROUND OPERATIONAL CHECKS FOR AVIONICS EQUIPMENT (NON ELECTRICAL) 12-37. Compass Check Swing.12-13 12-38. Pneumatic Gyros .12-14 Figure 12-1. Venturi System For Providing Airflow Through Gyro Instruments.12-15 Figure 12-2. Instrument Vacuum System Using a Wet-Type Vacuum Pump .12-16 Figure 12-3. Instrument Vacuum system Using a Dry-Type Air Pump.12-17 Figure 12-4. Instrument Pressure System Using a Dry-Type Air Pump .12-17 12-39.12-50. -RESERVED.- .12-17

SECTION 4. AVIONICS TEST EQUIPMENT 12-51. General.12-19 12-52. Test Equipment Calibration Standards .12-19 12-53. Test Equipment Calibration.12-19 12-54.12-64. -RESERVED.- .12-19 APPENDIX 1. GLOSSARY. (10 S) APPENDIX 2. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS (4 S) APPENDIX 3. METRIC-BASED PREFIXES AND POWERS OF 10 (1 )

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